American Press: Applied Research in Coaching and Athletics Annual #7 (1992)

ARCAA Contents & Abstracts Volume 7, 1992

ISBN 978-0-89641-250-7

Legislating Interscholastic Sport Eligibility Standards: Harmful or Beneficial? — Dana S. Espinosa, Peter J. Graham — This study investigated the effects of the 1984 South Carolina Education Improvement Act (SCEIA) on students who participated on the 1988 fall boys' football and girls' volleyball teams of 12 high schools located within the Richland and Charleston county school districts. The SCEIA requires that to be eligible for participation in interscholastic sports, a student must pass a minimum of four courses and all those undertaken which are required for graduation. The minimum passing grade standard, which must be within the range of 60-70, is established by each school district. To determine the pass/fail status of courses taken, each subject's 1988-89 school year record was reviewed. The review also identified individuals who dropped out of school during the study period. The data were analyzed to determine the number of players who: (1) remained eligible: (2) lost eligibility: (3) lost eligibility but regained it for the 1989 fall sport season: (4) lost eligibility and failed to regain it: and (5) lost eligibility and dropped out of school. The study includes 467 football players (297 Blacks, 162 Whites, 7 Hispanics and 1 Asian) and 94 volleyball players (59 Blacks, 30 Whites, 1 Hispanic and 4 Asians). Analyzed data revealed 113 football players (24..20%) and 8 volleyball players (8.51%) were declared ineligible following their respective seasons. Seventy-four of the 113 ineligible football players (65.49%) and all 8 ineligible volleyball players regained their eligibility. Ten of the 121 ineligible players (8.26%) dropped out of school. Nine drop outs were football players (5 Blacks and 4 Whites) and the tenth was a Black volleyball player. The data suggest that elevating academic requirements for interscholastic sport participation does not: (1) produce a greater percentage of ineligible players: (2) reduce the percentage of players regaining eligibility; (3) create a higher drop out rate: and, (4) impact minority players any differently than that previously evidenced. The data do suggest that raising minimum eligibility standards has little effect on the percentage qualifying. (1-18)

Status of Athletics in Historically Black Colleges and Universities (BCUs) — William F. Stier, Jr., Jerome Querterman, Mark M. Stier — No abstract. (19-45)

The Bad Coach in Contemporary Sporting Films: An Analysis of Caricature, Character, and Stereotype — Scott A.G.M. Crawford — Douglas Noverr has noted recently that coaches in sports films tend to be stock characters of three types: a) the coach as learner; b) the coach as teacher and redeemer; c) the bad coach. In his study entitled, "The Coach and the Athlete in Football Sports Films" Noverr examined four movies about American football. This presentation will discuss how the "bad," "corrupt," and "Machiavellian" coach is portrayed in the film medium. A variety of non-football films will be examined including Goldengirl (1979 — the story of a female track athlete programmed to win at the Moscow Olympics); One-on-One (1977 — an innocent student athlete battles his sadistic basketball coach); Youngblood (1986 — a small-time Canadian hockey team's coach who is committed to roughness rather than finesse); and Split Decisions (1989 — a young boxer is told to take a "dive" by his coach/manager). The real problem with such portrayals is that the venality and dishonesty are seen and depicted in sharp contrasts. The hero and the villain. The good and the bad. Virtue and vice are far from being mutually exclusive. The analysis will argue that caricature and stereotype obfuscate and complex chameleon persona of the elite coach, whether it be a Bobby Knight at Indiana, A Barry Switzer (once upon a time at Oklahoma) or Charlie Francis (Ben Johnson's former mentor) in Canada. (46-61)

Coaches' Role in Player Development — F. Wayne Blann — Today, "sports as business" are being held accountable for "doing the right thing." Coaches, as leaders, can help their respective organizations "do the right thing" regarding players' total development as individuals. This article examines the coach's role in developing programs that will help players make successful career/life transitions after sports. Key factors that should be considered in developing post-sport career/life transition programs for athletes include: athletes' unique characteristics; and athletes' unique social condition that results in unusual experiences. The "Professional Athletes' Career Transition Program," (PACTP) developed by Blann and Zaichkowsky in 1986, is designed to meet these key factors. Coaches should encourage and support managers of their organizations in establishing post-sport career/life transition programs because of the benefits that can be derived by players, coaches, and management. Post-sport career transition programs modeled after the PACTP are most likely to be effective. (62-76)

The Influence of Self-Hypnosis Upon the Arousal and Performance of Inter-collegiate Track and Field Athletes — Ralph A. Vernacchia, Stanley Austin, Mary VandenHazel, Ronald Roe — Nine male intercollegiate track and field athletes were taught to utilize self hypnotic techniques to regulate and control their arousal levels before and during competition. The athletes were instructed to visualize themselves performing their event effectively while at the same time visualizing and associating these images with a specific number which corresponded to the appropriate arousal level for their event (l = low arousal to 10 = high arousal). Results indicated a positive influence upon performance, especially during the most stressful part of the season (district and national competitions). The majority of the athletes reported an increased ability to control their arousal level resulting in a subsequent increase in confidence and performance levels. It was also found that several athletes developed the ability to regulate their arousal level(s) while simultaneously performing their event skill during competition. (77-91)

Athletic Heart Syndrome in Collegiate Baseball Players — M.C. Myers, J.C. Sterling, S.F. Crouse — Twenty-eight NCAA Division I baseball athletes (age 20.0 ± 0.4 years and 7.1 ± 1.3% body fat) were tested to quantify electrical heart response during rest and exercise. Heart activity was monitored by electrocardiography (ECG) during resting supine, pre-test examination, during maximal graded treadmill exercise and throughout recovery. For fitness comparison, maximal aerobic capacity (V02max) and body composition (% body fat) were also measured. Incomplete right bundle branch block (RBBB) was diagnosed in 39% of the players, 29% revealed right axis deviation, 18% showed evidence of first degree atrioventricular (AV) block and 54% were diagnosed with left ventricular hypertrophy (LVH). Sinus bradycardia, atrial hypertrophy, one case of sinus tachycardia, ST elevation and presence of U waves were also indicated among athletes tested. No sinus arrhythmias, right ventricular hypertrophy, second or third degree AV blocks, or inverted/diphasic T waves were found. The results of this study suggest that the ECGs of collegiate baseball athletes reflect patterns of athletic heart syndrome similar to other sports. (92-104)

Measuring the Anaerobic Endurance of Tennis Subjects — Dennis K. Landin, Stephen L. Dodd, David M. Cutton, Geoff Macdonald — The purpose of this study was to assess the reliability of a test specifically designed to measure the anaerobic endurance (AE) of tennis subjects. Although most tennis training manuals reflect a knowledge of the energy requirements for tennis, the vast majority of the physical performances suggested are measures of anaerobic power rather than anaerobic endurance. Since competitive tennis is characterized by repeated, short bursts of intense work which are separated by regular rest intervals the measurement of AE seems more appropriate. The design of the Tennis Anaerobic Endurance Test (TAET) was based upon the descriptive research of competitive tennis. The reliability of the TAET was determined through a test- retest procedure with 16 tennis players with varying levels of fitness and tennis skills. The tests were administered on two separate occasions within one week. The results revealed a high correlation (r = .868) between the scores from the two test dates, which indicates that the TAET can be reliably administered. (105-115)

The Assessment of Swimming Protocol to Estimate Intensity using Target Heart Rates of Fitness Swimmers — Serge P. von Duvillard, Denise G. Houseman, Linda M. LeMura — The purpose of this study was to assess target heart rates (THR) of fitness swimmers to estimate work intensity. Two swim tests each consisting of 10 consecutive intervals (length: 50 yards), were performed by 22 fitness swimmers at target intensity of 80% of their maximal heart rate (HR max). Time was recorded throughout each swim test while heart rate (HR) was monitored immediately following each swim interval. During the first test subjects were encouraged to swim at an intensity of 80% of age predicted maximal HR. Prior to the testing a short warm up period at low intensity was performed by each swimmer. The total time of the first test was used to determine the interval pace for the second test. Statistical analysis (repeated measures ANOVA) revealed that there were significant (p<.05) differences among the subjects' HR's within the first swim interval. This suggested that steady state had been achieved by the subjects after the first interval. A test of proportions was calculated to determine if the mean HR of at least 80% of the subjects was 60% of his/her age predicted HR max during the second test. The findings of the test of proportions revealed that 95 % of the subjects attained 60% of HR max. It was concluded that there was no significant (p>.05) difference among the HR's for fitness swimmers using time between intervals. That finding suggested that this protocol could be used for establishing swim intensities that attain a criterion HR. (116-123)

A Comparison of Three Selected Weight Training Programs on the Upper and Lower Body Strength of Trained Males — Darryn S. Willoughby — The purpose of the present investigation was to compare the effects of three selected weight training programs on the upper and lower body strength of trained males. Forty-eight trained males were pretested and posttested on free weight bench press and parallel squat strength before and after 12 weeks of training. Group 1 trained with a program consisting of 3 sets of a 10 repetition maximum (3x10-RM) while keeping the amount of sets, repetitions, and resistance constant. Group 2 trained with 3 sets of a 6 to 8 repetition maximum (3x6-8-RM) utilizing the principles of overload and progressive resistance exercise (PRE) while keeping only the amount of sets constant. Group 3 trained with a periodization program involving 4 weeks of 5x8-10-RM, 4 weeks of 4x5-7-RM, and 4 weeks of 3x3-5-RM also utilizing the principles of overload and PRE. Group 4 served as a non-weight training control group. Pretest bench press and squat strength values were analyzed with one-way ANOVA and showed no significance among the four groups. After the posttest, a 4 x 2 MANOVA with repeated measures on the last factor revealed that Groups 1, 2, and 3 significantly improved in strength on the bench press and squat from pretest to posttest while Group 4 did not undergo any significant strength improvements. Posteriori results revealed that Groups 1, 2, and 3 were significant from Group 4 for both the bench press and squat exercises. Among the training groups, Group 3 was significant from Groups 1 and 2 while Group 2 was only significant from Group 1 for both the bench press and squat exercises, respectively. It was concluded that a weight training program incorporating the principles of overload and PRE is beneficial for obtaining significant strength gains. However, for potentially optimal strength gains, a program involving periodization of training is recommended. (124-146)

Iron and Calcium Deficiencies in the Female Athlete: Implications and Recommendations Based on a Review of the Literature — Serge P. von Duvillard, Linda M. LeMura, Bianca W.Y. Lee, Theresa S.L. Lee, Simon C.K. Kiu — For many female athletes, a low body weight and corresponding low percentage of body fat is often critical for success in competition. The achievement of the desired body weight is typically accomplished at the expense of a nutritionally sound diet. Studies have indicated that a low caloric consumption may result in an insufficient intake of several micro nutrients, most notably iron and calcium. This review addresses the physiologic complications of insufficient iron and calcium consumption. Recommendations for alleviating iron and calcium deficiencies in women engaged in physical training are provided. (147-162)

Competition Trait Anxiety and Coping Resources for Stress in High School Athletes — Scott A. Bresler, Walter A. Pieper— High School football players (n = 228) were given the Coping Resources Inventory for Stress (CRIS) and the Sports Competition Anxiety Test (SCAT) to investigate the relationship between perceived coping resources and Competition Trait Anxiety (CTA). Significant negative SCAT scores were correlated with all CRIS sub-scale scores with the exception of Physical Fitness. Results of a multiple regression analysis indicated that three CRIS subscales were significant predictors of CTA: Confidence – a tendency to view oneself as being capable, competent, and well-adjusted; Acceptance – a tendency to accept shortcomings and imperfections in oneself; Structuring – the ability to organize and manage resources. Of particular significance, coping resources of athletes were correlated with and predicted CTA. (163-181)

The Application of Program Evaluation to Principles of Counseling/Education of Challenged Athletes — Gerard G. Lyons — The development of a system of program evaluation has been feared by many professionals for a variety of reasons. Yet over the years, program evaluation has proven to be beneficial because of it's usefulness in making decisions concerning the future of programs, and for aid in understanding characteristics of clientele, customers, or participants. A very useful benefit of program evaluation is the resultant availability of data which can be effectively used in fund raising efforts. Program evaluation is viewed as a necessary tool for any program. The purpose of this treatise is (1) to offer the reader an explanation of fundamental aspects of program evaluation, and (2) to offer a direction for program evaluation efforts in the counseling/education of challenged athletes. (182-190)

The What and When of Basketball Game Events: Implications for Coaching Decisions — Alison Duke, Joanne MacLean, John Corlett — A simple method for examining basketball game events is presented. Using it, 21 game events related to shooting, ball handling, rebounding, fouling, and coaching interventions were analyzed for an entire season of a women's university basketball team. Analysis of each variable over the ten, 4 minute periods comprising a game allowed for patterns of events to be determined. Several variables related to shooting, fouling, and coaching interventions were found to be time dependent while the majority of variables showed no discernible pattern over a 40 minute game. It is suggested that this type of analysis is potentially valuable to coaches at all levels as a means of understanding many characteristics of one's team. Among these are its susceptibility to mental and physical fatigue, its tendencies toward certain executions on offense and defense, and to the patterns of substitutions and time-outs initiated by the coach him or herself. It is argued that basketball could benefit from more detailed and "microscopic" examination than is currently practiced and that the techniques described here could provide coaches at all levels of play with the means to conduct such analyses. (191-213)

A Review of the Mechanics of the Soccer Style Method of Field Goal Kicking — George R. Taylor, Ricardo Nunez-Bentz — The purpose of this paper was to review the mechanics of the soccer style method of field goal kicking and to discuss these mechanics in terms which would allow coaches to teach proper techniques to student/athletes. The results of a cinematographic analysis of three expert kickers were used in the review. Coaching points of emphasis were presented for these phases of the soccer style field goal kick: alignment, take away of the kicking leg, placement of the plant foot, impact with the ball and the follow-through. Special points of emphasis which would aid in error correction of the kicker were included. (214-223)

COACHES CORNER

Cheerleaders: A Unique Combination of Leadership and Athleticism — Gregg Webb — No abstract (224-225)

BOOK REVIEWS

Strength Training for Coaches, by Bruno Pauletto, reviewed by Dick Phillips (226-227)

Swimming, by Walter Cryer, reviewed by Jerry Lyons (228-229)

Organizational Management Administration for Athletic Programs, edited by Thomas M. Kinder, reviewed by Warren K. Simpson (229-231)

Directory of Psychological Tests in the Sport and Exercise Sciences edited by Andrew C. Ostrow, reviewed by Warren K. Simpson (231-232)

Sport Psychology: From Theory to Practice, by Mark Anshel, reviewed by Warren K. Simpson (233-235)

Portrait of an Athlete,by Brice Durbin, Sr., reviewed by Warren K. Simpson (235-236)

New Dimensions in Aerobic Fitness, by Brian J. Sharkey, reviewed by Theresa Fuqua (237-239)

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