American Press: Applied Research in Coaching and Athletics Annual #9 (1994)

ARCAA Contents & Abstracts Volume 9, 1994

ISBN 978-0-89641-269-9

Technique Related Differences in High Performance Throwing by the Catcher in Baseball —Bruce Elliott, Shinji Sakurai, Robert Grove — The purposes of this study were to biomechanically compare the jump pivot, the rock-and-throw and the jab step techniques used by baseball catchers in throwing to second base. Four college-level Australian catchers of mean age 23 years were filmed using each of the above techniques to throw at a target positioned 38.8m from the home plate (plate to second base distance). No significant differences were recorded in temporal data between the three techniques. The mean total time from catch to impact with the target was 2.18s. No significant differences were generally recorded in body segment angles, ball speed or ball trajectory for the three techniques. Mean ball release speed (33.3 m/s) was similar to that recorded for outfielders throwing for maximum distance, but the trajectory of the ball was considerably less than that used to throw a ball for distance. (1-14)

Personality Traits of Intercollegiate Baseball Athletes Playing Central Versus Noncentral Defensive Positions at Three Levels of Competition — Michael Greenwood, Warren K. Simpson — The purpose of this study was to determine if personality differences existed among intercollegiate baseball players according to "central" and "noncentral" defensive positions at three competitive levels. The subjects were 221 academically eligible male baseball players enrolled at various National College Athletic Association (NCAA)--Division 1, National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics (NAIA), and National Junior College Athletic Association (NJCAA) institutions within the State of Illinois. The Athletic Motivational Inventory was used to analyze the athletes on personality traits. Data were statistically analyzed through a 2 X 3 factorial design and Scheffe's post hoc test was used when significant F values were obtained through ANOVA comparisons. Based on the analyses of the data, there were few significant differences between personality trait scores, defensive positions, and level of competition. However, NCAA athletes playing noncentral defensive positions had significantly higher scores on the personality trait responsibility then the NCAA athletes playing central positions (p < .05). Further, NAIA athletes scored significantly higher on the leadership trait than NJCAA athletes (p < .05). The NAIA athletes also scored significantly higher on the conscientiousness factor than NCAA players (p < .05). In conclusion, the personality differences that were noted in this study suggests that personality assessment is a consideration that should not be totally eliminated from decisions concerning player positioning and the athlete's psychological strengths, weaknesses, and needs.(15-30)

The Relationship Between Social Status, Playing Ability, and Defensive Player Position with Respect to Centrality Theory within Youth Baseball Players — Phillips W. Lowcock, James D. LaPoint, David L. Cook, Carolyn M. Hoffman — This study examined the relationship between social status and defensive player position with respect to centrality theory within youth baseball players. The players (n = 261 ) were participants in baseball leagues in a major midwestern metropolis. Social desirability and athletic ability were assessed using two questionnaires, one for the players and one for the head coach. The defensive player positions (l through 9) were split into individual groups and ANOVAs were used to analyze these nine groups on the other variables. Significant differences were found to exist between the groups on all social and ability variables at alpha <.01. Duncan follow-up tests were conducted to identify which of the nine groups differed significantly on each variable. Overall, pitchers and shortstops scored the best while outfielders scored the worst. Discussion includes implications of these findings with regard to centrality theory and how these findings may affect youth sports participants. (31-49)

Achievement Orientation and Its Psychological Correlates in Youth Sport — Zenong Yin, Michael P. Boyd — Grounded on Nicholls' theory of achievement motivation, the present study explored the relationships between achievement goal orientation and its psychological correlates in youth sport participants with a developmental perspective. Subjects were 270 high school football players. Canonical correlation analysis revealed two significant canonical functions, accounting for 26% of variance. The results indicated that when players were ego-oriented, older and at higher competitive levels, they tended to express moderately levels of physical competence, high sport trait anxiety, negative affect and did not attribute effort as a cause for their sport success. On the other hand, players who were both ego- and task-oriented and younger self-reported higher levels of physical competence and importance of physical competence and explained their sport success as a result of both ability and effort. The findings raise concerns about over-emphasis on ego perspective in youth sport (Duda, 1992; Roberts, 1992). The results are discussed to convey the message that in order to prolong and enjoy sport participation social environment surrounding youth athletes must be facilitating to the development of task goal perspective (i.e., emphasis on mastery of skills, learning process, individual self-improvement, and participation) at different levels of youth sport. (50-65)

Improving Coaches' Performances — Thomas C. Ormond, F. Wayne Blann — Administrators and coaches are responsible for coaches/assistant coaches' ongoing development to help ensure that team goals are achieved. Videotaping of player and team performance is a common practice used by many sports programs to determine actions that might be taken to improve performance and to formulate game strategies against opponents. This paper discusses how administrators and coaches can audio- and videotape coaches' during practices in order to determine actions that might be taken to help improve their performance. Although administrators and coaches in all situations might benefit from this strategy, it is most appropriate for administrators and coaches who: 1) have adequate equipment and staff resources, i.e., NCAA Division I athletic programs and professional sport teams; 2) are willing to invest the resources necessary to help coaches with serious coaching deficiencies; and 3) truly want to work together to evaluate coaches' performances over time to help improve all aspects of their programs. The major premise of this paper is that administrators and coaches can become better managers and leaders by using audio- and videotaping techniques to evaluate and improve coaches' performances, and, thereby, achieve organization and program goals. (66-78)

Examining the Effects of Perceived Desirability of a Task on an Athlete's Intention to Practice Sport Psychology Skills — John R. Greaser — This article represents a continuation of the author's efforts to examine the effects that expectations (beliefs) and subjective values (task values) have upon a sport participant's decision to practice sport psychology skills (e.g., goal setting, effort management, concentration control). An earlier study (Greaser, 1992) substantiated that these two motivational factors are reliable predictors of an athlete's intention (willingness) to engage in this specific sport behavior. In the accompanying article, the task value component (Eccles et al., 1983; Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975) of this motivational model was explored in greater detail. Findings of the study were based upon data acquired from a 22-item instrument designed to measure evaluations of outcomes associated with using sport psychology skills. The male athletes who completed the attitude questionnaire were recruited from five intercollegiate sport teams. The data appear to have validated the subjective value component of Eccles' expectancy-value model. The findings also highlight practical information for coaches and sport psychology specialists regarding the reforming of educational strategies that serve to enhance subjective values toward applying sport psychology skills. (79-95)

A Between-Sport Analysis of Peak Performance Characteristics — Christine M. Snyder, Britton W. Brewer — An experiment was conducted to examine between-sport differences in psychological characteristics of peak performance. Subjects consisting of 70 basketball players and 26 long distance swimmers were asked to rate their attentional focus, concern with outcome, perceptions of effort, perceptions of time, and feelings of confidence during their best, average, and worst sport performances. Results revealed that greater task focus and confidence were associated with peak performance for both swimmers and basketball players. Perception of time slowing was associated with worse, not better, performance for both swimmers and basketball players. For swimmers, perceptions of effort and concern with outcome did not differ across performance levels. For basketball players, however, increased perceptions of effort and concern with outcome were associated with peak performance. The results of this study indicate that although there may be psychological characteristics that are associated with peak performance across sports, there may also be sport-specific differences in the exact qualities of peak performance. (96-105)

Mental Training for Peak Performance — Gary P. Sailes — As sport psychology gains respectability and recognition in the world of competitive athletics, mental preparation has become an important component in the training regimes of elite athletes. Olympic and professional athletes currently train with sport psychologists to achieve a mental edge over their competitors. Elite coaches are adopting the recommendations of sport psychologists and are utilizing mental training techniques in the development of their athletes to achieve peak performance. Although mental training is only a sub-discipline in the field of sport psychology, its popularity and effectiveness make it the predominant topic within the discipline. A review of the related sport psychology literature on mental training has revealed a common foundation among scholars and applied sport psychologists. Although approaches in the application of this common foundation are distinct, its framework is consistent. The foundation for mental training in sports is comprised of five variables that complete the training process in achieving peak performance. They are: 1) confidence building, 2) developing concentration and focus, 3.)motivating the athlete, 4) managing pressure, and 5) utilizing visual imagery. This article examines the five variables of mental training and attempts to summarize their application in the process of achieving peak performance. (106-118)

A Prospective View on Mental Practice Research: The Logic and Use of the Cognitive Rehearsal Technique of Creative Concentration — Jeffrey P. Newbauer, Laurence Miller, Ralph A. Vernacchia — Research indicates that the mental practice of physical skills has a positive influence on subsequent behavioral outcomes, yet the performance benefits are often times small or undifferentiated from control populations. This article briefly reviews mental practice research and discusses a variety of cognitive rehearsal strategies that have evolved in the past two decades. An argument is presented in favor of the mental training strategy of creative concentration through use of mastery audio rehearsal tapes. In support of this covert practice technique, a study of four male intercollegiate track and field athletes from Western Washington University is discussed. Based upon objective performance measures and subjective self-reports it was concluded that use of the creative concentration technique did not produce a systematic change in the athletes' competitive meet performances, but did contribute to improved cognitive skills and positive mental attitudes. Additionally,the program was perceived as a useful training aid that benefited overt performance. (119-141)

Equal Opportunity: The Role of Legislation and Legal Decisions — Dorothy J. Lovett, Carla D. Lowry — This study examined the impact of several legislative and/or legal decisions that related to women's athletics over three five-year time periods. The data that were collected consisted of the number of collegiate sports for males and females across the time periods and the number of coaches by gender across the same time periods. Data were analyzed to reveal significant differences between genders and between time periods. Results were discussed in terms of lack of equality relative to the number of sports and the number of female coaches. Strategies were suggested that could be implemented to address these issues of equal opportunity. (142-151)

Teaching the Adducted or Parallel Footstance to Beginning Football Players — Ted Phillips, Mark W. Maneval, George White, Jerry Elledge — No Abstract. (152-160)

Training a Pre-shot Routine for Golf — William E. Moore, John R. Stevenson — The psychology of shot-making in golf is similar to that of other complex, self-paced sport skills. Common to all these situations, the athlete has to analyze information, select a motor response, and then execute the motor program. The goals of these skills include mechanical, psychological, and performance aspects. For golf, the physical goal is to consistently repeat a motor pattern under a variety of conditions. The psychological goal is to consistently ready oneself to select and execute the best motor skill at that moment. The performance goal is to trust what has been trained by releasing conscious control and allowing automatic processes to execute the skill. Structuring one's mental and physical behavior to better accomplish these goals is the focus of the pre-shot routine. The purpose of this article is to provide a rationale for the use of a three-step, pre-shot routine and a methodology for training this routine for improved golf skill performance. (161-167)

Shooting with the Instep Drive in Soccer — Michael A. Sutliff, Powell McClellan — No Abstract. (168-182)

Validation and Application of the Sebesta Pickle-Ball Service Test: A Pilot Study — Tim Sebesta, Frank F. Ashley III — The Sebesta Pickle-ball Service Test evaluated pickle-ball serving ability by having subjects serve 10 balls into each service court while attempting to have the ball cross no higher than 2 ft. above the net. Higher point values were awarded for serves which landed deep, within the corners of the back court, and for short angle areas near the junction of the short service line and sideline, and the junction of the short service line and center line. Serves traveling over the 2 ft. rope were awarded half the value. Interclass correlation procedures indicated that consistency was shown over the 20 trials with an R = .78 for the test trials and R = .80 for the retest. Additionally, a split-half correlation, comparing even and odd trials, of r = .67 for the test and r = .80 for the retest was obtained after application of the Spearman-Brown Prophesy Formula. The test-retest reliability coefficient was r = .41. Subsequent data collection of an additional 19 subjects who had experience with the Sebesta Pickle-ball Service Test prior to test-retest evaluation revealed a correlation of r = .87. Divergent groups validation was shown as poorly-skilled players scored significantly lower than highly-skilled players. Concurrent validity was evaluated by correlating round robin tournament standings and the total score on the serving test as shown by rho = .68 for the test data and rho = .72 for the retest. (183-197)

Comparison of Levels of Perceived Stress Burnout among College Basketball and Tennis Coaches — Karol R. Hunt, Shannon R. Miller — The purpose of this research was to measure the frequency and intensity of perceived burnout among NCAA Division I and III basketball and tennis coaches and to determine individual stressors which directly relate to burnout. Also, perceived stress and burnout levels were compared between basketball and tennis coaches in 1982-83 and in 1990-91. The survey included a coaching stress instrument and the Maslach Burnout Inventory (MBI). Generally, burnout rates were higher for basketball than tennis coaches and greater in 1990-91 than in 1982-83. Compared to the MBI frequency standardized scores in 1982-83, both coaching groups experienced moderate depersonalization and personal accomplishment. For intensity, the basketball coaches ranked moderate for emotional exhaustion and depersonalization while the tennis coaches ranked moderate on depersonalization and personal accomplishment. Compared to the MBI standardized scores in 1990-91, both the basketball and tennis coaches scored in the moderate range on all subscales for frequency and intensity. The greatest stressor for both coaching groups was self-generated pressure to win. (198-222)

Preseason Interval Training Application for Basketball — Douglas Boatwright, Everret Todd — The purpose of this project was to determine if a basic interval training concept could be applied to a standard basketball drill in order to improve anaerobic power output. Twelve subjects volunteered to participate in this study. Subjects were tested on a bicycle ergometer for a 40-second all-out effort to determine maximal anaerobic power. Males (n=10) and females (n=2) pedaled against a resistance of 5 kp and 4 kp, respectively. A hand counter was used to count the number of revolutions for each 5 second interval. Three functions of power were calculated: (a) peak power, (b) mean power, and (c) rate of fatigue. After a minimum of 24 hours rest, subjects reported to the gymnasium and were tested on an all-out sprint called a "suicide". Training times were calculated from the suicide times by adding 5 to 7 seconds. A six-week training period was established with a 1:3 ratio for each interval and with a work-relief recovery. A paired t-test for correlated samples was run to analyze the data. Reliability of the testing procedure was determined by correlating the post-test and retest data. Statistical analysis revealed significant differences (*p < 0.05) between the pre- and post-test results for peak power (t = 2.86*, 11 df), mean power (t = 3.39*, 11 df), and sprint times (t = 4.77*, 10 df). No significant difference was shown to exist between the rates of fatigue. The test and retest results of the post-testing data indicated a highly significant correlation (*p < 0.01) for peak power, r = 0.93*, mean power, r = 0.90*, and sprint times, r = 0.87*. In conclusion, anaerobic power output was significantly improved by applying a basic interval training technique to a common basketball conditioning drill. (223-233)

Effects of Training Volume on Mood States of Collegiate Swimmers — Richard H. Cox, David L. Costill, Rob A. Robergs, Robert Thomas, Todd Bate — The purpose of this investigation was to study the relationship between selected mood states and training volume of collegiate swimmers. Subjects were 25 collegiate (NCAA Division I) male swimmers. Swimmers were divided into two groups according to stroke specialties and performance ability. Groups trained under identical conditions for 18 of 24-weeks. Following an initial 3-week conditioning phase, swimmers either continued a once per day 90-min training regimen (SHORT group), or engaged in two 90-min training sessions per day (LONG group) across a 6-week training period. Mood states were monitored throughout the 24-week period utilizing the Profile of Mood States (POMS). Multivariate procedures on the mood state measures (POMS) revealed a significant test period main effect and a significant groups by test period interaction. Univariate procedures revealed that the mood states of tension and fatigue were differentially affected by training regimen. Increasing workload from one workout a day to two does not necessarily result in overtraining and mood disturbance. A single 90-min training session produced a level of mood state disturbance that was essentially equal to that produced by two 90-min sessions. (234-247)

COACHES CORNER

Fluids and Carbohydrate: What's Best? — David W. Bacharach, Erik L. Ekstrom — Much of the exercise science community is in agreement about fluid replacement for physical activity; however, this information has not been transmitted very well to the many practitioners in the field. There are several conclusions that can be drawn from the current literature on fluid consumption before, during and after sport, as well as diet for pre-game meals. One, proper fluid replacement as described by the ACSM guidelines using fluids before, during, and after physical activity can have a major impact on performance. Second, there is a general consensus that an adequate amount of carbohydrate (400-600 g/day for a male athlete weighing 155 lbs) is extremely important to sports performances. Several ways to provide adequate carbohydrate in an athlete's diet are by drink supplementation or proper proportioning of total calories in daily foods such that 55-65% of total calories are derived from carbohydrate. Using these two basic principles, coaches and athletes can help reduce negative influences of an inadequate hydration level and/or current diets lacking in carbohydrate. (248-257)

BOOK REVIEWS

Applied Sport Psychology: Personal Growth to Peak Performance (Second Edition) by Jean M. Williams, Editor, reviewed by Warren K. Simpson (258-259)

Successful Sport Fund-Raising by William F. Stier, Jr., reviewed by Warren K. Simpson (259-260)

Adapted Physical Activity, Recreation and Sport, Cross Disciplinary and Lifespan by Claudine Sherrill, reviewed by Gerard G. Lyons (260-262)

Handbook of Research on Sport Psychology, edited by Robert N. Singer, Milledge Murphey, L. Keith Tennant, reviewed by Darel D. Terral (262-263)

BES (Basketball Evaluation System) Computer Program, designed by Kenneth Swalgin, reviewed by Darrel Hnizdor (264-264)

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