American Press ARCAA: Applied Research in Coaching and Athletics Annual #14 (1999)

ARCAA Contents & Abstracts Volume 14, 1999

ISBN 978-0-89641-330-6

Preliminary Development of the Golf Swing Scale: An Instrument Evaluating Quality of Golf Swing — Cheyne Sherman, Boris Crassini — Two sources of information were used to provide detailed specification of the “ideal” basic golf swing. These were (i) descriptions identified through a review of a sample of current golf coaching literature, and (ii) analyses provided by a panel of sports scientists and professional golf coaches. On these bases, the ideal basic golf swing was decomposed into two phases; a 25 component static pre-swing phase, and a 45 component dynamic in-swing phase. These 70 constituent components were organized into a checklist format (the Golf Swing Scale) in which a brief description of each component together with a three-point scale on which the actual execution of the component could be judged relative to this ideal. A preliminary study was conducted to investigate the initial validity of the checklist. Eight subjects were required to hit golf balls towards a target so that measurements of their performance accuracy and corresponding ratings of the quality of their swings could be evaluated. The results of these data showed that the GSS was able to accurately discriminate two different levels of golfer, but was not able to discriminate between the more or less accurate shots. It was recommended that further studies using the checklist should be conducted using a larger and more varied subject pool. (1-16)

Coaching Behavior: A Review of the Systematic Observation Research Literature — David Kahan — The purpose of this study was to identify, categorize, and analyze published research that employed systematic observation instruments to directly observe coaching behavior (RCB). Over 1800 studies were reviewed and 56 met the criteria for inclusion in the study. Profiles of coaching behavior for studies that used either the Arizona State University Observation Instrument or the Coaching Behavior Assessment System were constructed and revealed that coaches spent a majority of time instructing or monitoring. Results of studies that incorporated the most commonly studied variables from context, coach, and player classifications were presented. Because more than one variable was related to coaching behavior, a case was made for future study of coaching behavior to consider alternative theoretical frameworks and methodologies. References to trends in research on teaching in physical education were cited for beginning this endeavor. Potential areas of inquiry for furthering RCB were also identified. (17-58)

The Effectiveness of Learning (Cognitive) Strategy on Free-Throw Performance in Basketball — Ronnie Lidor, Michal Arnon, Avi Bornstein — Preperformance routines have been recommended by sport psychologists to be used prior to the execution of closed motor skills such as foul shots in basketball. The performance conditions during the execution of foul shots are stable, thus individuals can apply a set of routines which can assist them to feel control of the performed act. The purpose of this study was to examine the effectiveness of a learning (cognitive) strategy, e.g., the Five-Step Approach (5-SA) on the accuracy of foul shooting performances of young female and male basketball players. The study was conducted during 9 sessions as part of their basketball practices. The 5-SA (applying 5 steps: Readying, imaging, focusing attention, executing and evaluating) was introduced to half of the participants, and the other half received only information on the techniques of foul shooting. Accuracy performance was measured during 135 shooting trials. The data analyses indicated that the players who were guided on how to implement the 5-SA were more accurate than the players who were not exposed to strategy directions. It was recommended that coaches use strategy guidelines during foul shot sessions in order to assist young players to be mentally prepared for the execution. (59-72)

Gender and the Hiring of Coaches at High Schools and Small Colleges — Paul E. Dubois, Victoria L. Bacon — Explanations for the years of decline in the number of female coaches have generally clustered around the existence of gender discrimination in hiring. However, much of the current evidence on this topic has no empirical basis. This study extends previous research by analyzing data collected at the point of hire. Four questions guided the research: (1) Do females apply?; (2) Are female applicants part of the sport network?; (3) Are female applicants as qualified as males?; and (4) Does gender discrimination help explain who is hired? Coaching applicants data were analyzed from positions at selected high schools and small colleges. The study findings did not support the notion that females are directly discriminated against nor are they disadvantaged in the hiring process. However, females were less likely than males to apply for coaching vacancies. Related research and competing theoretical frameworks are discussed. (73-104)

Effect of a Carbohydrate Solution on Motor Skill Proficiency during Simulated Soccer Performance — Simon Northcott, Michael Kenward, Kevin Purnell, Terry McMorris — The effects of ingesting an 8% carbohydrate solution on simulated soccer performance were investigated in 10 college soccer players (MeanSD : age=21.51.51 years, mass=74.44.33 kg, height=1.770.052 m). Subjects completed two 45 minutes halves of intermittent exercise and soccer skills (passing and shooting), under a carbohydrate (CHO) and placebo (PL) condition. Soccer skill proficiency was significantly improved (p<0.05) in the last 15 minutes of the simulation under the CHO condition. Total distance covered also improved (p<0.05) but there was no effect on maximal sprinting speed. These results support previous research which has recommended carbohydrate ingestion for soccer players (Kirkendall, 1993; Leatt & Jacobs, 1989; Shephard & Leatt, 1987). (105-118)

New Title Sponsor Recognition at a College Football Bowl Game — Brian Crow, Peter J. Titlebaum, Dallas J. Branch, Jr. — College football bowl games provide many advertising and sponsorship opportunities for local, national, and international companies. Title sponsors, those whose names are attached to the title of the bowl, acquire certain exclusive rights by paying higher sponsorship fees than smaller sponsors. Do the recognition benefits, however, justify the additional fees? This study was conducted to determine fan recognition and sponsorship impact of a new title sponsor of a major college football bowl game. An on-site survey was conducted, and demographic information as well as data regarding current and previous sponsor recognition and perceptions was collected. Results indicated that while fans at the game recognized the new sponsor and its products, and viewed them positively because of their title sponsorship, many of the respondents did not own a sponsor’s product nor could recall the previous title sponsor. (119-129)

Golf Performance and Individual Zone of Optimal Functioning — Jason Z. Guest, Richard H. Cox — Relative to Hanin’s Individual Zone of Optimal Functioning Theory (IZOF), it was hypothesized that golf performance associated with measured pre-stroke state anxiety would be higher when anxiety was within a predetermined range of optimal functioning as opposed to out of that range. It was further hypothesized that golf performance associated with measured pre-stroke anxiety would be higher when anxiety was below a predetermined range of IZOF as opposed to above that range. Participants included five collegiate male golfers and one amateur male golfer between 18-25 years of age. Participants’ cognitive and somatic state anxiety were measured prior to each stroke during 36 holes of golf. Performance was measured as par minus strokes for each hole (objective) and by asking participants to rate their performance on each hole on a 10-point scale (subjective). Zones were formed around actual measures of pre-stroke cognitive and somatic state anxiety. Objective and subjective performance scores were categorized as being associated with “below”, “in”, or “above” the appropriate IZOF. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was use to determine if significant differences existed among categories of performance. Planned orthogonal contrasts were used to test research hypotheses. Results provided partial support for Hanin’s IZOF theory in golf. In addition, results demonstrate the negative consequences of state anxiety that is above or higher than an individual’s IZOF. Practical suggestions for coaches and golfers are discussed consistent with the results of the study. (130-149)

Assessing Badminton Playing Abilities in College Students — Lobo Louie, Bill Lam, Bik Chow — Badminton is one of the common core activities in required or elective physical education programs. The present study attempted to utilize the confirmatory factor analysis approach to verify the factor structure of assessing badminton playing abilities. A three-factor model was initially hypothesized according to the comments from a panel of experts. One hundred and two college students volunteered as subjects in the study. The goodness-of-fit tests indicated that the present data set generally agreed with the hypothesized model. Additionally, the smash test was excluded from the finalized factor 'overhead strokes' due to low reliability and factor loading. This study was able to statistically identify the skill tests essential to assess the general playing abilities in badminton, which will help the physical educators evaluate students in a more effective manner. (150-161)

Current and Prior Ergogenic Aid Use of Present and Former Athletes — Sharon Huddleston, Joseph K. Mintah, Kaia E. Thiese, Randall J. Wee — The literature on athletes' ergogenic aid use is primarily related to vitamin/mineral supplementation and illegal drugs. Noticeably missing is information related to the use of other nutritional and pharmacological substances that are legal to purchase and readily available to athletes of all ages. The main purpose of this study was to investigate current and prior use of a wide range of ergogenic aids. Male (n=204) and female (n=90) college students from a midwestern university self-reported use of 46 ergogenic aids at three levels of competition (junior high school, senior high school, and college) on a Likert scale (1 = never used, 5 = almost always used). Descriptive statistics indicated that aspirin, caffeine, carbohydrate loading, rub-down ointments, sport drinks, and vitamins were the top six aids utilized both by males and females during athletic participation at the three competition levels. However, mean responses for each of these aids indicated low to moderate use across levels (M=1.42 to 3.15) and there were no significant differences by gender or level. Even though responses indicated a wide range of use by level for the top ten aids, averages fell between “never used” and “sometimes used”. In summary, results indicated a low use of ergogenic aids among subjects at all three levels of competition. (162-175)

An Investigation of Perception Differences Toward the Competitive Situations on Varsity Soccer Athletes — Jin Wang, Douglas Callahan — Coaching a team sport is challenging due to players’ athletic experience, personality, perceptions, beliefs, and social backgrounds being different (Wang & Ramsey, 1997). A major challenge the coach has to face is to meld the differences of the players to develop a common attitude toward achieving individual and team goals. Because an individual’s perceptions direct his/her behaviors, understanding players’ perceptions in certain issues can help coaches to effectively manage the team. Thus, the purpose of this paper was to develop a reliable and valid instrument to measure athletes’ perceptions toward competitive situations in sports, and also compare the differences in perceptions between males vs females, starters vs nonstarters, and experienced vs less experienced athletes on college varsity soccer teams. The results of the t - tests revealed that there were the significant differences found in perceptions toward competitive situations in sports between males and females, experienced and less experienced athletes. And also, the marginal significant differences in perceptions were found between starters and nonstarters. (176-195)

The Importance of Throwing First-Pitch Strikes — Gregg Bennett, Mike Maack — The purpose of this study was to determine the importance of throwing first pitch strikes by intercollegiate baseball pitchers. The subjects were an entire pitching staff at an NCAA Division I University in the Southeastern United States. Descriptive data were collected over the 1997 spring baseball season to quantify the first pitch of each at bat of the subjects’ opposing team. Chi-square analysis revealed that throwing first pitch strikes produce more outs by college pitchers. In addition, results also indicated that throwing first pitch balls increases the likelihood of opposing batters reaching base. In conclusion, the importance of throwing first-pitch strikes appears to be paramount for collegiate baseball pitchers. Coaches should continue to teach and emphasize this technique. (196-203)

Nutrition for the Student Athlete: An Overview — Gerard G. Lyons, Heidi Kessler Lyons — No Abstract. (204-218)

COACHES CORNER

A Fund Raising and Promotion Primer for Sport: Part One — William F. Stier, Jr. — This is part one of a two-part series dealing with the challenges of generating outside resources for amateur sports and school based athletic programs. Part one presents the background and justification for outside fundraising within school based athletic programs as well as amateur sport programs. The process of fundraising is examined from four perspectives (methods) of generating resources. Additionally, fundamental principles of fundraising and promotions are presented as they relate to the business of sport are presented. In the second installment specifics of planning and implementing appropriate and successful fundraising projects will be presented as well as a review of appropriate strategies and tactics commonly utilized in successful fundraising is also shared, including questions that must be asked by the organizers of potential projects of events. (219-242)

BOOK REVIEWS

Coaches Guide to Sport Administration by Larry M Lerth, reviewed by Warren K. Simpson (243-244)

Shooting in the Dark: Tales of Coaching and Leadership by Jim Thompson, reviewed by Warren K. Simpson (244-247)

Hockey Drills for Puck Control by Vern Stenlund, reviewed by Scott Douglas (247-249)

Coaching Fast Pitch Softball Successfully by Kathy J. Veroni, reviewed by Heather Collier (249-251)

Group Dynamics in Sport (2nd edition) by Albert V. Carron & Heather A. Hausenblas, reviewed by Warren K. Simpson (251-252)

Organizing Successful Tournaments by John Byl, reviewed by Chase Koester (253-256)

Volleyball Drills for Champions edited by Mary Wise, reviewed by Warren K. Simpson (256-257)

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