ARCAA Contents & Abstracts Volume 18, 2003

ISBN 978-0-89641-399-3

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    Additional Insights into Occupational Employment Trends within Women’s Intercollegiate Athletics: Ranked Program Prestige Kurt A. Stahura, Michael Greenwood, Michael E. Dobbs — This investigation empirically examined the relationship between sex of head coach and success of team, as operationally defined by team rankings. This study analyzed rankings over a three-year period between 1997-1999. The analysis was confined to women's intercollegiate basketball, soccer, softball volleyball and track. These sports were chosen because such sports have been operationally defined in the literature as being the most prestigious for women at the intercollegiate level and outdoor track is the most common sport with the most participants. The analysis included all Division I and Division III NCAA institutions. Chi-square analysis revealed that significantly more men were present as coaches in the ranked sports of basketball, soccer, and volleyball at the Division I level. The sport of soccer was dominated by male head coaches at the Division III level. The study provides insights relative to success and employment opportunities relative to women's intercollegiate athletics. (1-36)

  • Human Resources as Sources of Competitive Advantage: A Resource-based View of the Athletic Department George B. Cunningham — Based on the resource-based view of the firm, this study investigated the relationships between the expenditures on human resources and competitive advantage as reflected in the athletic performance of intercollegiate athletic departments. Archival data were collected for the average head coach salary, average assistant coach salary, and recruiting budget of 160 Division I athletic departments. It was found that all three variables were significantly correlated with performance as measured by Sears Director’s Cup (SDC) points. After controlling for organizational and departmental size, the block of independent variables accounted for 30% unique variance in SDC points earned, with expenditures used to recruit student-athletes serving as the most potent predictor. Findings are presented in terms of resource-based theory and practical implications for athletic administrators. (37-58)

  • Comparative Ethnographies of Two Males Coaching Girls Interscholastic Sport: Assessing Congruence between Thought and Action David Kahan — The purpose of this study was to qualitatively describe the degree of congruence between what male coaches of girls’ sport say and do and to explain how the degree of congruence affects the sport ecology and athletes’ experience. Two coaches, one novice and one veteran, of interscholastic girls’ track teams participated. Data were collected over the entire 3-month sport season and obtained from the following sources: written field observation, audiotaped records of practice sessions, formal and informal interviews of athletes and coaches, and documents. Data were analyzed using constant comparison and grounded theory procedures resulting in two case studies and a cross-case comparison. Results suggest that the ability to align thought and action is predicated on a coach’s ability to apply experiential learning and the power to control environmental variables that upset the status quo. Contextual variables (e.g., team composition, resource availability and utilization) and the dynamic interplay between managerial, instructional, and social task systems impact what coaches think and do across a sport season and during practices, although more-experienced coaches appear better able to handle such intrusions. (59-97)

  • Uncovering a Need for Neck Strength in Female Soccer Players: A Case Study Mark Maneval, Jennifer Beck, John Vincent, George White, Dwayne Massey, John Mollaghan — The purpose of this study was three-fold: First, to track the average number of times a soccer ball comes into contact with the head by female team members during the course of a Division I NCAA soccer game. Second, to survey twelve regional college strength coaches to ascertain if they incorporate neck strength exercises into their female soccer strength programs. Any finally, if warranted, to recommend the need for strength exercises with this population to facilitate the biomechanical heading process and reduce injury. Heading data was tracked an entire soccer season for one NCAA, Division I female soccer program. Twelve southeastern colleges were randomly chosen for strength program comparison data. Results of the study indicate the average number of headers per game between the teams was reported as M = 104.6 contacts. In conclusion, although controversy exists in the literature as to the dangers of the heading process in the sport of soccer, heading is an integral component of the game, which is likely not to disappear in the near future. It is the finding of this study to recommend the immediate incorporation of neck and shoulder strength exercises in the training regimens of female soccer players. (98-110)

  • Status of Hydration: A College Basketball Team after Practice Douglas Boatwright, George Strickland, Chris Smith, Jay McCraw — The purpose of this study was to examine the hydrated state of a college basketball team after practice. As per standard practice, the athletic trainers weighed each basketball player (n=12) pre- and post-practice. The measurements for the first eighteen days of practice prior to the first game were used in this study. Regular team hydration practices were used which allowed the players to drink adlib during practice. Repeated measures ANOVA was used to determine if there was a difference between pre- and post-practice body weights and was used to analyze pre-weights over the 18 days to determine if the team was in a constant state of dehydration. The repeated measures of analysis of variance determined that there were no significant differences between pre- and post-weights or day-to-day pre-weights. An average net loss of 4.2 lbs. per day or approximately 2.2 percent of body weight was lost during practice. In conclusion, careful attention should be given to the hydrated state of a basketball team during practice. Standard fluid replacement practices should be followed, thus allowing for possibly a better quality of practice. (111-116)

  • An Investigation of the Relationship of Coach’s Use of Humor and Subsequent Player Evaluation Charlie Nix, Andy Gillentine, Jeremy Jordan, Ming-Te Huang — This study examined the effects of coaches’ use of humor on player evaluations. A questionnaire was administered to 97 high school wrestlers. Subjects were asked to indicate their perceptions of their coaches’ use of humor, coaching abilities, and the degree to which they liked their coach. Respondents indicated their coaches had a sense of humor (M= 1.50), that they liked their coach (M = 1.52), and had appropriate abilities for coaching wrestling. Further analysis indicated weak relationships between the athletes’ perception of coaches’ use of humor and coaching ability (r = .131) and between the coaches’ use of humor and the degree to which athletes liked the coaches (r = .217). A moderate relationship (r = .561) existed between athletes liking the coach and perceived coaching ability. This study suggests use of humor by wrestling coaches does not improve athlete perceptions of coaching ability or liking of the coach. However, there was a statistically significant relationship between athletes’ liking of the coach and perceived coaching ability. (117-130)

  • Simplifying Rehabilitation Motivation and Adherence: The “Four-Pronged” Approach Warren K. Simpson, Allyn Byars, Aaron Hajart, Curtis M. Garner — Injuries to sports participants are an inherent risk in competition. Rehabilitation of those injuries attempts to return the athlete to activity as soon as possible. Since rehabilitation adherence has a positive relationship in shortening that process, it logically is an important goal of those individuals associated with the rehabilitation process. Much of the previous approaches to rehabilitation adherence have focused on the motivation of the injured athlete. Unfortunately much of the published models can be ambiguous and contradictory. In addition many of the models are robust in their approach. The proposed “Four-Pronged” approach to rehabilitation motivation and adherence attempts to condense and simplify the vast amount of data available. The approach utilizes goal setting, personal power, social support, and athletic trainer/athlete relationships to provide a simple and usable model to increase adherence. (131-144)

  • An Investigation of the Relationship between Visual Imagery Perspective, Kinesthetic Imagery, and Locus of Control Sara C. Gates, Mary Turner DePalma, Greg A. Shelley — Although prior research examining the relationship between kinesthetic imagery and visual imagery perspective has produced inconsistent results, the current authors hypothesized that the ability to use kinesthetic imagery would be independent of an internal or external visual imagery perspective. It was also hypothesized that there would be an association between external visual imagery perspective and external locus of control (LOC). Athlete and non-athlete participants (n = 142) were engaged in an imagery session and completed imagery and LOC measures. Results clearly demonstrated that kinesthetic experience can occur simultaneously with either an internal or an external visual imagery perspective. No relationship was found between visual imagery perspective and LOC. Based on these findings, it seems prudent to encourage athletes, regardless of their visual imagery perspective, to incorporate kinesthetic sensations into their mental training protocols. (145-164)

  • How Administrative Experiences Affect Athletic Administrators’ Perceptions of Coaching Performance Jin Wang, Li Chen — Evaluation of coaching performance is an integral part of an athletic program since coaches’ performance directly relates to a team’s success, students’ athletic experience, college image, and public relations with community and parents. Athletic administrators’ perception of evaluation criteria of coaching performance serves as important guidelines that affect coaches’ decision-making, philosophy of coaching, management styles, athletic performance, etc. Limited studies have been done in the area of evaluation criteria that athletic administrators would select. Thus, the purpose of this study was: (1) to identify the evaluation criteria the athletic administrators would select, (2) to determine relationships between administrative experience of the administrators and the criteria they would select to evaluate coaches. The researchers concluded that administrative experience is an imperative factor affecting the perceptions of administrators toward important criteria of coaching evaluation. (165-192)

  • Necessary Personal Qualities, Attributes, and Characteristics for Directing Athletics: NCAA Presidents’ Views William F. Stier, Jr., Robert C. Schneider — This study identified qualities, attributes, and characteristics deemed necessary for the success of athletic directors by presidents of NCAA institutions. Presidents of NCAA Division I, II, and III colleges and universities responded to a survey instrument created by the researchers. A five-point Likert Scale survey with responses ranging from “essential” to “irrelevant” was developed based on relevant current literature. Results of the survey found that the presidents identified ten qualities deemed to be very important as well as three qualities that were rated as irrelevant for the successful collegiate athletic director. The study further pointed out the importance of athletic directors and would-be athletic directors being aware of how presidents at the various NCAA Division institutions feel about those qualities, attributes and characteristics needed by successful administrators of collegiate athletic programs. (193-211)

  • The Benefit of First-or Second-Pitch Strikes Thrown by the High School Baseball Pitcher J. Daniel Szolek, Judith Oslin — The purpose of this study was to determine the percentage of outs recorded by the high school pitcher after delivering a first- or second-pitch strike. In order to emphasize the importance of throwing at least one strike within the first two pitches of an at-bat, the percentage of outs after first- and second-pitch balls was also recorded. The entire pitching staff at an American, midwest high school made up the subject group involved in this study. Twenty-two games played during the 2002 spring baseball season were used for data collection. Every pitch thrown within a game was charted and the result of each at-bat was recorded as producing an out or the opposing batter successfully reaching base. A Chi-square analysis of the data revealed that the high school pitcher who was able to throw a strike within the first two pitches of an at-bat recorded significantly more outs as opposed to at-bats begun with two balls. Seventy-one percent of first-pitch strikes and 62% of second-pitch strikes led to outs. Data suggests that a pitching plan, at the high school level, which emphasizes at least one strike within the first two pitches of an at-bat could improve team success by producing more outs. (212-227)

  • The Development of KidTest 2002 Update: A Talent Identification Inventory for Predicting Success in Sports for Children Tony Grice — The purpose of this study was to update KidTest, a talent identification test inventory which provides a subjective evaluation of the potential talent that a child may exhibit for success in specific sports. A total of 173 (75 boys, 98 girls) were randomly selected from grades 6, 7 and 8 from three different schools. This study replicates an earlier study completed in 1999 on kindergarten through fifth grade students. Nine (9) physical fitness components were administered and the data was collected to develop a working model for identifying talent in specific sports. Using a three-digit composite, norms were established for student subjects, sixth through eighth grade, based on performance on various tests in aerobic power, motor skills and coordination. A predicted Max VO2 score was established by the Houston Non-exercise Test. Percent body fat was done as a means of cross-validation. Results indicated relatively high validity across the three grade levels. An aerobic run was performed with all three grade levels doing a one-mile walk/run. The motor ability tests consisted of a forty-yard dash measuring speed, a fifteen-yard shuttle run for agility and the standing long jump testing leg power. Hand-eye-foot coordination was measured by a catching test along with throwing and kicking tests for accuracy and distance along. Each of the three composite scores was averaged on a scale from one to five. A legend was developed utilizing the mean and standard deviation to cross reference numerous sports activities with a corresponding three-digit composite score for each sport.

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