AMERICAN PRESS, Applied Research in Coaching and Athletics Annual #33 (2018)

ARCAA Contents & Abstracts, Volume 33, 2018

ISBN 978-0-89641-577-5

The Effect of Mental Relaxation and Imagery on Free Throw Shooting Accuracy among Young Basketball Players — Boris Blumenstein, Iris Orbach, Yossi Gelinski,Yaarit Shemer, Yitzhak Weinstein, Daniel Moran— The purpose of this research was to examine the effect of a pre performance routine (PPR), which includes relaxa¬tion, imagery, or a combination of the two, on the num¬ber of successful free throws. Forty-five male basketball players, aged 14-16 years (M±SD, 15.3±1.6), volunteered to participate in this study. Subjects were randomly as¬signed to one of three groups. Group Experimental 1 (E1) was exposed to four relaxation sessions, four im¬agery sessions, and, finally, four sessions that combined relaxation and imagery. All of these sessions were in addition to regular training. Group Experi¬mental 2 (E2) was exposed to the same psychological techniques as E1 in the reverse order. Finally, the Con¬trol group (C) continued with regular training together with team meeting activities. Subjects performed the motor task (i.e., free throw) 10 times before (T1) and af¬ter each training of the psychological technique (T2, T3, T4). The main finding of the current study reveals that the application of mental training, together with regular training, led to improved performance in both experi¬mental groups compared to the regular training only. (1-12)

Extra Innings: Understanding Personal Goals of College Baseball Umpires and Their Attitudes on Professional Development — Robert J. Doan, Anthony S. Smith — Similar to athletes and coaches, sport officials strive to improve their officiating skills for the chance to be a part of the big game. Using sport coaching literature as a framework, the purpose of this study was to explore the goals of college baseball umpires, what professional de¬velopment opportunities they have pursued, and their general thoughts on professional development opportu¬nities. A total of 122 collegiate baseball umpires in the southeastern region of the United States completed a survey exploring their goals and attitudes on profes¬sional development. Results were analyzed using a well-specified phenomenological procedure from qualitative research. Umpires in this study focused their goals on improving their skills or officiating higher league level games or conferences Understanding the goals of offi¬cials and their attitudes toward professional develop¬ment will add to the research base of sports officials. (13-37)

Competent to Compete: Performance Satisfaction and Motivational Climate Predict Competitive Anxiety in Adolescent Skiers — Sebastian Harenberg, Veronkia Rottensteiner, Martin Kopp, Svenja A. Wolf, Harold A. Riemer — Prior to a competition, athletes may frequently experi¬ence various (e.g., cognitive, somatic) symptoms of competitive anxiety. Different models have been devel¬oped to explain sport related anxiety and its relationship with athletic performance. Cheng et al. (2009) proposed a model that considers competitive anxiety in sports as multi-dimensional, including cognitive, physiological, and regulatory processes. Initial evidence suggests that these processes are related to athletic performance, yet, the factors influencing these processes are underex¬plored. The purpose of the present study was to examine whether sources of perceived competence (i.e., perfor¬mance satisfaction, motivational climate) can predict the cognitive, physiological, and regulatory processes of competitive anxiety in adolescent downhill skiers. One-hundred and fifteen athletes between the ages of 14 and 19 (Meanage=16.64, SD=1.19, 47% female) par¬ticipated and completed the Three Factor Anxiety In¬ventory, the Athlete Satisfaction Questionnaire, and the Perceived Motivational Climate in Sports Questionnaire. Three multiple regressions with the processes of com¬petitive anxiety as dependent variables were calculated. The findings indicated that 42% of the variance of the regulatory component of competitive anxiety was predicted by dimensions of performance satisfaction. Ego-oriented climate predicted 13% of perceived cogni¬tive symptoms of competitive anxiety. Perceived physi¬ological symptoms of competitive anxiety were neither predicted by performance satisfaction nor motivational climate. The results indicate that satisfaction with one’s performance plays an important role in the perception of competence prior to a stressful competitive situation. In addition, the emphasis of comparison and ranking (i.e., ego-orientation) by teammates or coaches may be related to more intense perceptions of cognitive symptoms of competitive anxiety prior to a competition. Coaches and athletes are advised to build a realistic perception of competence (e.g, by emphasizing the process of skill de¬velopment and satisfactory performances) rather than the outcome in preparation for a competition. (38-64)

Nutritional Knowledge of Collegiate Athletes — Shelley L. Holden, Brooke E. Forester, Amber L. Smith, Henry N. Williford, Christopher M. Keshock — The primary purpose of this study was to determine if collegiate athletes possessed an adequate level of sports nutrition knowledge as measured by the Sports Nutri¬tion Knowledge Questionnaire. Secondary purposes were to determine if athletes who had taken prior nutri¬tion courses had higher sports nutrition knowledge questionnaire scores (SNQSCORES), and whether or not there were racial differences or sport participation dif-ferences in sports nutrition knowledge. Eighty (49 males; 31 females) collegiate athletes from a Division I univer¬sity in the southeastern United States completed the questionnaire. The mean SNQSCORES raw score was 42.03 ± 7.70 out of a possible score of 88. The mean per¬centile score was 48± 8%. Only one athlete scored above the 70% established passing score. A univariate ANOVA was calculated evaluating nutri-tional knowledge based on sport, race, year in college, and previous or current nutrition course. Significance was established at p ≤0.05. Results indicated no significant differences in SNQ¬SCORES for any of the in¬dependent variables with the exception of race. There was a significant mean difference in black ver¬sus white athletes (black athletes (N = 39) SNQSCORES = 40.33 ± 8.10, white athletes (N = 41) SNQSCORES = 43.65 ± 7.06. (p = 0.05). While there was a significant dif¬ference regarding race the effect size was very small (d = 0.05). Results clearly indicate collegiate athletes need further support, training, and education related to sport nutrition knowledge. (65-77)

Men Who Coach Women — Sarah Stokowski, Shannel Blackshear, Jordan Bass, Shelby Hutchens, Merry Moiseichik — Although Title IX helped to shape athletics in educa¬tional settings, the legislation also transformed the world of coaching. Due to the growing demand for competitive female athletics at the collegiate levels, the need for qualified individuals to coach women’s sports continues to grow. As colleges and universities continue to create opportunities for women, coaching collegiate female teams has become equally competitive to coaching male athletes in terms of pay, benefits, compensation packages, and national attention (Samariniotis, Aicher, & Grappendorf, 2016). Despite the fact 57% of female collegiate athletic teams are coached by male coaches, there is a gap in the literature regarding this population (LaVoi, 2013). Therefore, the purpose of this study was to understand the experiences of male coaches that coach female athletes. Specifically, this study strived to answer the following research questions: why do male coaches coach female athletes, and how do male coaches handle social and physical boundaries while working with female athletes? Analysis of semi-structured inter¬view data revealed six major themes that influenced male coaches of female sport: first, the male coaches have spent the majority of their high-level coaching ex¬perience with women’s athletics, report high levels of satisfaction, and feel there are greater opportunities for job growth and development in women’s athletics, and last, they recognize the need to be cognizant of physical and social distance, display different coaching and feed¬back language, and develop relationships and trust dif¬ferently with their female athletes. This study serves as a contribution to the limited data pertaining to male coaches working with female athletes. The results of this study will help universities, coaches, and collegiate ath-letes to better understand the experiences of this very specific, unexplored population. (78-105)

Perceptions of Anti-Doping Policy among Collegiate Coaches — Siena A. Morgan, Jimmy Smith — Athletes that consider making the transition from col¬lege sport to international competition must also transi¬tion in the understanding and adherence to anti-doping policies. For athletes interested in participating at an Olympic level, the learning process of doping policies often begins in college. At this point in an athlete’s ath¬letic career, coaches serve as both the primary source of anti-doping policy education to for both college and elite athletes. The current research sought to understand coaches’ perceptions of existing anti-doping policy. In¬terviews were conducted with collegiate coaches repre¬senting Olympic-Collegiate sports. Results exposed sev¬eral themes including the role of athletic trainers and anti-doping education challenges. Coaches also revealed that a strong relationship with the athletic trainers was crucial to a compliant program and understanding tech-nological advancements in drug testing methods. (106-129)

A Comparison of Goal Orientation between Genders: A Generation Z Investigation — Daniel R. Czech, Amanda Boyd, Charles H. Wilson, Corey Cottrell — Generation Z students, born in the late 1990s and be¬yond, are now college aged. Previous research has shown the importance of goal orientation, but there is limited research on goal orientation and Generation Z. This study compares the goal orientation of undergrad¬uate students (n= 1,734) in physical activity courses us¬ing the Sport Orientation Questionnaire (Gill & Deeter, 1988). An independent samples t-test revealed signifi¬cantly higher (p<.001) goal orientation in female stu-dents (n=852) than male students (n=872), supporting previous research. These results provide professors and academic advisors insight on motivational gender dif-ferences in Generation Z students, which may improve student success by assisting in individualized motiva¬tional support. (130-143)

Current Coaches Perceptions: Retention of Division College Football Coaches — Ryan Zimmerman — Reasons why coaches in sport decide to leave the profes¬sion have been examined over many years. However, retention has become a topic of interest. The researcher examined why coaches continue in the profession, dif¬ferences in stress between coaching title, and coping strategies used to increase longevity in coaching. Coaches continue in the profession because of benevo¬lence, for the love of the game, relationships, and fear of the unknown. Eight Division I football coaches com¬pleted the interview portion of the study. Based on the qualitative findings, differences existed related to ad¬ministration, lack of time, leadership style, and balance between work and home life. Coping strategies in-cluded items related to perspective, beat your losses, or-ganization and management, liberation, care for athletes, ideal environment, media, and family. Future explora¬tion of specific differences in stress and experience is needed to further support longevity in coaching Divi¬sion I football. (144-169)

Eating Attitudes in Competitive Male Category Cyclists — Davis Hale, Roger Kollock — Endurance athletes, such as cyclists, continually face the challenge of fueling for training/competition and main¬taining a high power to weight ratio. The prevalence of disordered eating is higher for sports dependent on a high power/weight ratio, specifically as the demands of racing increase. A better understanding of the subclini¬cal eating attitudes of cyclists across a wider range of competitive levels will help with earlier detection in spe¬cific groups of cyclists who may be at risk for disordered eating. The purpose of this cross-sectional investigation was to identify subclinical eating attitude differences among competitive male category cyclists. Eighty-six male cyclists provided valid responses on the 26 item Eating Attitudes Test. Mean Eating Attitude Test scores were compared across the six racing categories via a one-way ANOVA with post-hoc comparisons and indi¬cated significant differences. Findings from this study determined Category 2 racers are at more a risk for sub¬clinical disordered eating than other categories. (170-184)

Seeking an identity: Transitioning to Life after Professional Sport — Allison B. Smith, Elizabeth A. Taylor, Robin Hardin — Athletes endure multiple transitions during their athletic careers culminating with their transition out of sport and the end of their career. An athlete’s career can be unpre¬dictable and athletes are often times forced to exit their sport before they are ready to do so. This could be be¬cause of injury or deselection in that they are no longer able to perform at the level that is needed to sustain their career. This study examined the experiences of profes¬sional baseball players who transitioned out of sport using a theoretical framework grounded in identity for¬mation and social identity theory. The transition out of sport is a difficult process as the respondents struggled with their identity. There was a also a general lack of knowledge about the transitioning process and a lack of organizational support to assist in the transitioning pro¬cess. (185-213)

Stress, Mental Health and Coach-Athlete Relationship: A Literature Review — Becca Lentz, Mary Lou Kerins, Jimmy Smith — Research has shown that stress plays a key role in the mental health issues experienced by several age groups, especially young adults. While previous research has connected stress to mental health issues among multiple populations, it is the high school and college student-athlete young adult population that has received signifi¬cantly less attention in the literature. Common stressors among young adults include job-related responsibilities, school work, and other social pressures. It is the student-athlete that faces these same stresses in addition to other responsibilities and stressors, including their relation¬ship with their coaches. The purpose of this literature review is to build on the discussion that stress plays a significant role in mental illness for young adults, espe¬cially high school and college student-athletes. We make the argument that to aid in the understanding of mental health, coaches should continue to build upon their mental health awareness efforts including the consider¬ations of the relationships they establish and build with their student-athletes. A deficient coach-student athlete relationship may lead to mental health symptoms and build over time to an illness in these individuals even after their high school or college athletic career is over. (214-238)

COACHES' CORNER

Playbook to Becoming a College Basketball Graduate Assistant — Jeremiah Bonsu, Spencer Sheppard, Peter Titlebaum — The purpose of this study is to create a playbook for the student who aspires to become a graduate assistant bas-ketball coach following graduation from undergraduate studies. Any student with this goal will gain an under-standing of the base level of skills needed. An assess¬ment of various publications including academic jour¬nals, popular press articles, personal communication, and job postings was used to create a composite of the skills critical to achieving a graduate assistant position, as well as determining the responsibilities of one. This article also presents the downside of being a graduate assistant and the challenges of entering the coaching in¬dustry in general. (239-251)

BOOK REVIEWS

Exploring Sport and Exercise Psycholoigy Reviewed by Warren K. Simpson (252-254)

The New Ballgame, Understanding Statistics for the Casual Fan Reviewed by Riley Price (255-256)

Coulda, Woulda, Shoulda: Baseball Stories You Haven’t Heard (Yet) Reviewed by Warren K. Simpson (257)

The Heritage: Black Athletes, a Divided America and the Politics of Patriotism Reviewed by Robert McDermand (258-261)

Coaching Better Every Season: A Year-Round System for Athlete Development and Program Success Reviewed by Warren K. Simpson and Veronica D. Snow (262-263)

A Call for Papers and Subscriptions (264-269)

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